CAPITALISM AND ALIENATION: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

The beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century led to the rise of capitalism in society. According to the linguist, political activist, and social critic, Noam Chomsky, capitalism is an economic system in which there is more emphasis on profit maximization and the concentration of wealth in private organizations, as compared to societal welfare, democracy, and public accountability.

Capitalism prioritizes corporate interests resulting in social inequality that fosters mental health problems, including alienation. Alienation is a state of estrangement from oneself, from others, from society, or from nature. It is an isolation of individuals with respect to their sense of self, their status within their socio-cultural community, and their sense of control within the world of which they are a part of. The sociologist Melvin Seeman described alienation in five dimensions - powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self-estrangement. According to the clinical psychologist George Albee, capitalism emphasizes individualism and consumerism, which give rise to feelings of disconnection, isolation, and alienation.

Over the years, theorists have suggested how capitalism leads to a sense of alienation in society. The earliest and perhaps the most prominent figures among them is the philosopher, sociologist, political theorist, and economist Karl Marx. Marx, in the mid-19th century, specifically in his work Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, extensively wrote about how the capitalistic system results in a sense of disconnectedness and alienation. He suggested that capitalism is exploitative and that it is rationalized and legitimized as freedom, agency, democracy, and fulfillment.

Karl Marx

According to Marx, because the workers do not own the products that they create, they are not able to get the full benefits of it. Due to this, they are unable to realize the true value of their work. Workers also have no or little say in what they are doing. They are more like machines, viewing their work as a means to an end. This leads to a lack of creativity and personal connection to their work, giving them a feeling of monotony and unfulfillment. The repetitive tasks make individuals disconnected from their own true potential and sense of self. For them, work becomes a means to survive and not something that should be enjoyed, leading to dissatisfaction.

Marx also suggested that capitalism creates a sense of competitiveness among individuals, which prevents cooperation, mutual support, and a sense of community, making individuals feel isolated and disconnected. 

On the whole, according to Marx, capitalism makes the majority of people disconnected and alienated. Individuals feel disconnected from their work, their potential and sense of self, and from each other, giving rise to a sense of alienation in society.

In the 1890s, the sociologist Emil Durkheim also theorized about alienation. Durkheim linked alienation to the concept of anomie that he introduced in 1893 in his work The Division of Labor in Society. According to Durlheim, anomie is a state of instability and disorderliness in society that occurs due to unclear norms. Such a state occurs when there is rapid change in society because of industrialization and capitalism.

Emil Durkheim

Durkheim suggested that in modern, capitalistic societies, social life becomes complex leading to the weakening of social bonds, which makes individuals feel disconnected. It becomes difficult for people to find meaning in a fragmented society. Further, the lack of social integration and social isolation develop a sense of alienation among people in society. Durkheim believed that in modern, capitalistic societies, the lack of shared norms and social bonding leads to the feeling of alienation.

In the early 1900s, the sociologist and political economist, Max Weber suggested how capitalism results in alienation, specifically in his work of 1903, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber suggested that capitalism promotes a bureaucratic and impersonal society that leads to a sense of disenchantment. According to Weber, the rise of rationality due to capitalism has led to society becoming efficiency-driven, replacing it with emotion-driven actions.

Max Weber

Weber used the term iron cage to describe how individuals in a capitalistic society feel trapped in a bureaucratic system, which makes them lose their personal freedom leading them to become disconnected from their purpose. The bureaucratic system, according to Weber, makes individuals feel like machines, giving rise to a sense of disconnectedness and alienation.

In a similar vein, the Marxist philosopher, literary historian, and literary critic Gyorgy Lukacs, in the early 1900s, suggested that capitalism develops a sense of alienation among people. In 1923, in his work History and Class Consciousness, Lukacs developed the concept of reification. Reification is the process by which social relationships and human activities become like commodities, under capitalism. This, further, makes individuals view their relationships as mere things, instead of dynamic social interactions.

Gyorgy Lukacs

According to Lukacs, reification causes individuals to be disconnected from their social reality and they lead their life in a passive manner, resulting them to experience a sense of alienation. Thus, Lukacs argues that alienation is directly associated with capitalism. Capitalistic societies commodify human relationships, making people feel alienated within society.

The psychoanalyst and social psychologist Erich Fromm, in his book The Sane Society, published in 1955, argues that alienation is a form of mental illness when individuals lose their sense of purpose and identity in a society that starts valuing material possessions. Fromm argued that alienation stems from giving emphasis to material success, which makes individuals feel isolated, resulting in a sense of dissatisfaction.

Erich Fromm

Fromm was highly influenced by Karl Marx and is often referred to as a Marxist psychologist. Like Marx, Fromm suggested that alienation can be viewed in relation to capitalism, and has written about it from the 1950s onwards. According to Fromm, the rise of capitalism has resulted in feelings of anxiety, isolation, and powerlessness. In capitalistic societies, individuals feel disconnected from their work, each other, and even themselves.

Fromm suggested that every individual has inherent existential needs. These needs are - relatedness (the drive for union with others or the need to form meaningful connections with others), transcendence (the urge to rise above a passive existence), rootedness (the need to develop a sense of belongingness), sense of identity (the need to develop oneself as a separate entity), and frame of orientation (the need to have coherence and meaning in life). Capitalism, according to Fromm, inhibits the fulfillment of the inherent existential needs of individuals. 

Due to capitalism, people give emphasis to consumption, material success, and conformity, which leads to a disconnection from the true self, others, and nature - all of which inhibit the fulfillment of the existential needs, and giving rise to alienation.

Erich Fromm’s theory can be seen as the culmination of the perspectives of Marx, Durkheim, Weber, and Lukacs. Fromm took instances from their sociological and philosophical perspectives and integrated them to develop his psychological perspective, resulting in a comprehensive understanding of how capitalism leads to experiencing a sense of alienation.

The theoretical perspectives of Marx, Durkheim, Weber, Lukacs, and Fromm indicate how socio-economic and political structures can lead to disconnectedness among people, resulting in a sense of meaninglessness, self-estrangement, and powerlessness - aspects of alienation as described by Melvin Seeman. These perspectives have implications in contemporary times, where it has been found that loneliness is highly prevalent to the extent of being called an epidemic.

This article can also be found on the blog - Life and Psychology

MEANING IN LIFE: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Meaning in life is often considered to be a vague and abstract concept, which has been difficult to define. Usually, meaning in life has been conceptualized as a coherent sense of identity, an understanding of the self, the world, and life in general, goal-directedness, or a sense of purpose in life, and having a sense of significance in life. It has also been described as a cognitive construct that helps in discovering significant aspects of life. 

Having a sense of meaning in life has been found associated with positive emotions, increased self-esteem, lesser depressive symptoms, and a greater sense of wellbeing. Over the years, different psychologists have given their perspectives on the concept of the meaning in life. These differing perspectives help in getting a better understanding of the concept. It also gives an understanding of how the concept has developed throughout the years, within psychology.

Alfred Adler

The psychoanalyst and founder of Individual Psychology, Alfred Adler, in his book, What Could Life Mean to You, published in 1931, acknowledged that the idea of meaning in life is age-old. In his book, he mentioned that the way to find meaning in life is to make a contribution to the life of others. Adler suggested that to have meaning in life, the person should believe in cooperation and have an interest in contributing to the welfare of society.

In his book, Adler further emphasizes that the meaning in life lies in communication, and not being in isolation. If this does not happen then the individual has unpleasant experiences. By suggesting this, Adler was again giving emphasis on contributing to the life of others. He also suggested that in contributing to the life of others, the individuals develop, and enhance their skills and abilities. In order to feel significant, Adler suggested that individuals should be significant to others.

Therefore, according to Adler, meaning in life can be experienced by making a contribution to the life of others. In this regard, later on, in 1939, Adler introduced his concept of social interest, which is about helping others - being respectful and considerate - to strive for a better society.  

Rollo May

Similar ideas have been conveyed by the existential psychologist, Rollo May. In the 1950s, Rollo May emphasized on having a healthy communal orientation. A healthy communal orientation is a strong concern for the welfare of others. This can be viewed in contrast to an unhealthy communal orientation, in which people are confused about themselves and are not sure about what they want. Due to this, they then turn to others meaninglessly in order to overcome their disconnect and separateness from others, only ending up being more desperate and more lonely.

The unhealthy communal orientation, according to May, results from unhealthy individualism, which involves a lack of sense of community and hyper-competitiveness, leading to interpersonal antagonism and separation from others. This unhealthy individualism eventually leads to a feeling of emptiness, loneliness, and a sense of meaninglessness. Therefore, according to May, having a healthy communal orientation gives meaning in life and helps in avoiding the experience of meaninglessness.

Around the same time as Rollo May, the existential psychologist, Viktor Frankl suggested that meaning in life is one of the major goals that drive human behavior. He referred to this as the will to meaning. This will to meaning, according to Frankl is innate.

Victor Frankl

Frankl categorized meaning in life in three different ways. First, he suggested that meaning in life is derived from one’s accomplishments, which include creative works such as art. Second, meaning in life is derived from varied experiences such as traveling, enjoying nature, and even experiences associated with the feelings of love.

The third type of meaning, according to Frankl, is associated with the approach towards suffering and events that cannot be changed. In such instances, Frankl suggested that meaning could be derived from compassion or even humor. This type of meaning is the transcendental nature of human experience and is associated with the feeling of dignity in suffering. It is this derived meaning that helps individuals to survive their experience of suffering.

Frankl, further, suggested that it is the will to meaning that helps people to overcome the existential vacuum, which involves a sense of emptiness or blandness, and hopelessness in life. It is a sense of alienation and an inexplicable feeling of loneliness that a person experiences. It is from this idea that Frankl originated his logotherapy. Logotherapy is a therapeutic approach that helps individuals to find meaning in life. Logotherapy is known as the third school of Viennese psychotherapy – the first school being the approach of Sigmund Freud, and the second school being the approach of Alfred Adler.

These early perspectives of meaning in life led to the high popularity of the concept. It allowed psychologists to conduct extensive research on the notion of meaning in life. This is reflected in the more recent perspectives on meaning in life.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

The positive psychologist, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, in his book Flow: The Psychology of Happiness, published in the year 2002, suggested three different yet related aspects of meaning in life. Csikszentmihalyi suggested that one of the aspects of having meaning in life is purpose, which means that individuals have a goal that is challenging enough to make their lives to be significant. The goal should be such that it makes people focus their attention on it, and they get involved in activities that not only make the goal achievable but even enjoyable.

The second aspect of meaning in life, according to Csikszentmihalyi, is resolution in the pursuit of the goal. This means that having purpose is not enough. Individuals should be having an expression of intentionality. Csikszentmihalyi suggested that there should be a striving for the goal that individuals have and that their intent should be transferred into some action.

Finally, the third aspect of meaning in life, according to Csikszentmihalyi, is a sense of harmony that results from the other two aspects, that is, having purpose as well as being able to act upon it. Individuals who have purpose and work towards achieving that, have their thoughts, feelings, and actions congruent with each other. Such individuals, Csikszentmihalyi suggested experience a deep sense of inner harmony, which eventually gives them meaning in life.

Michael Steger

In 2009, Michael Steger, Social and Health Psychologist, and the Director of the Center of Meaning and Purpose, Colorado State University, in his research demonstrated that meaning in life can be viewed in terms of two dimensions – presence of meaning and search for meaning. 

The presence of meaning is the degree to which people find their life to be significant and meaningful. It is about the extent to which people find their lives to be significant as well as the extent to which they find their life to be purposeful.

The search for meaning is the degree to which people engage themselves in the search for meaning. It is about the efforts that people put in, while they try to comprehend the significance and purpose of their lives.

With Steger suggesting two dimensions, more recently, psychologists have been emphasizing upon viewing meaning in life in terms of multiple dimensions. In recent times, a tripartite view of meaning in life has emerged. According to the tripartite view, meaning in life has three distinct but related dimensions – comprehension, purpose, and mattering.

The first dimension, comprehension is the extent to which people perceive a sense of coherence in their life. People who are high on comprehension have more clarity about their life and feel that their life makes sense. People who are low on comprehension experience their life as being incoherent and unclear.

The second dimension, purpose is the degree to which people feel that they have valued goals and have direction in life. People who are high on purpose have a clear sense of their goals in life, feel motivated and enthusiastic, and have a greater sense of direction in life. People who are low on purpose, experience a sense of aimlessness and disengagement.

Finally, the third dimension, mattering is the extent to which individuals feel their existence is significant and that they are valued in the world. People who are high on mattering, feel that their significance has a lasting value. People who are low on mattering feel that their existence is of no significance and that their life matters to nobody.

The tripartite view attempts to give a better understanding of the concept of meaning in life. In 2017, Social and Positive psychologist Login George, along with Health psychologist, Crystal Park, developed a scale to measure meaning in life, on the basis of these three dimensions. The tripartite view has, thus, helped in making the notion of meaning in life more refined.

Meaning in life is a concept that has been widely studied in psychology. In recent times, it has emerged to be a significant construct in positive psychology as well as cognitive psychology. From initially being viewed as a general, abstract concept, to more recently being viewed as a multidimensional, refined construct, meaning in life has been described in many ways. 

Over the years, some of the ways in which meaning in life has been suggested to be derived from are - making significant contributions to the society, being concerned about the welfare of others, being able to overcome suffering and emptiness, having purpose in life, feeling coherence, and feeling significant in life. 

This article can also be found on the blog Life and Psychology